In partnership with the GSMA Spectrum Programme, Opensignal analyzes the use of spectrum bands across different network generations in Asia Pacific (APAC). APAC is diverse in terms of mobile technology advancement. While markets such as South Korea, Japan, or Taiwan are among the global frontrunners for 5G deployments, others are only just starting their 5G journey. This study examines 18 markets in East Asia and Oceania, focusing on the varying stages of 5G progress, spectrum refarming, and the persistence of legacy 2G and 3G networks. From pioneering 5G nations to those still reliant on legacy infrastructure, this report highlights how spectrum usage is shaping mobile network experiences across the region.
Key findings:
- Greater spectrum, greater speeds: Markets that assign broader spectrum bandwidth for 5G are experiencing significantly faster download speeds, proving a clear correlation between spectrum investment and network performance.
- Several APAC markets have deployed 5G services almost exclusively in the 3.5GHz: Nearly 100% of 5G readings in South Korea, Malaysia, and New Zealand are on the 3.5GHz band.
- Low bands vital for 5G reach: The efficient use of bands below 1GHz, is pivotal for delivering widespread 5G connectivity and, therefore, higher time connected to 5G.
- Legacy networks are still relevant in some markets. Markets like Timor-Leste, Papua New Guinea, Myanmar, and Laos still see over 10% of smartphone users spending their time on 2G or 3G services.
- Spectrum refarming for future growth: Critical spectrum bands such as 850MHz and 2100MHz, traditionally used for 3G, are now being repurposed for 5G, driving faster speeds and better network efficiency in leading markets like Singapore and Hong Kong.
- 900MHz band transition: Formerly a 2G stronghold, the 900MHz band has been successfully refarmed in countries like Australia for 4G and 5G, yet other APAC markets still struggle to phase out older networks, underscoring the need for accelerated spectrum reform.
Spectrum and network performance - a strong correlation
In Opensignal’s previous analyses, we found that greater quantities of spectrum capacity tend to improve the 4G and 5G experience. We observed this both in the Asia Pacific region but also in Latin America. Generally, markets where our users see a larger amount of average 5G spectrum used for their 5G connections also see faster 5G Download Speeds.
While some markets have made significant strides in 5G deployments, others are still in the early stages of this journey. In pioneer countries across Asia Pacific, 5G is well-established, with the technology expected to account for a third or more of total mobile connections by the end of 2024 in nations like Australia, Japan, New Zealand, Singapore, and South Korea, where adoption will surpass 60%, according to the figures from GSMA Intelligence. Meanwhile, countries in the second wave of deployments, such as Thailand, have experienced rapid 5G network expansion and quickly rising adoption. In contrast, Laos has only just launched 5G, while Vietnam and Myanmar are in the process of trials, and Cambodia has yet to commit to specific timelines for 5G rollouts. As these markets progress, operators face the challenge of decommissioning legacy 2G and 3G networks to optimize spectrum resources.
The 3.5 GHz band hits the spot for 5G roll-outs, but other bands are also important
The 3.5GHz band is considered ideal for 5G because it offers a balance of speed, capacity, coverage, and propagation, making it great for enhanced mobile broadband and Fixed Wireless Access (FWA) applications. Our analysis demonstrates that while this band plays a crucial role in 5G roll-outs across APAC, markets also commonly use bands below 1GHz and in the lower mid-bands for 5G.
For example, Thailand and Indonesia use solely bands below 3GHz for 5G deployments. Thailand relies mainly on bands 700MHz and 2600MHz — Thai MNOs have access to large, contiguous holdings of 90-100MHz in the 2.6GHz. Meanwhile, Indonesia uses bands 2100MHz and 2300MHz, mainly for Dynamic Spectrum Sharing (DSS), which negatively impacts average 5G download speeds in the country. Thailand is yet to assign the 3.5GHz band to mobile operators, while satellite services in Indonesia currently have part of the 3.5GHz range assigned.
On the other hand, several markets in Asia Pacific have deployed 5G services either entirely or almost exclusively in the 3.5GHz band — like South Korea, Malaysia, New Zealand or Taiwan. The rest of the analyzed markets use a mix of low- and mid-bands for their 5G deployments. South Korea uses solely the 3.5GHz band for 5G deployments — South Korean operators were not interested in bidding for the 700MHz band back in 2016, when these frequencies went unsold.
While the 3.5GHz frequencies are hailed as the key band for successful 5G deployments — a variety of frequency bands can optimize the overall performance and boost the coverage of 5G networks. Bands below 1GHz can provide a greater reach — ideal for rural roll-outs and narrowing digital divide, but also for large-scale IoT deployments — and better penetration through buildings than higher frequency bands, resulting in a stronger signal strength. Similar to the 3.5GHz band, 1-7GHz or mid-bands bands offer city-wide capacity, including in densely populated urban parts of a country. Deployment of 5G services across different bands, on top of the 3.5GHz roll-outs, can help reduce congestion and manage data traffic in busy areas as well.
Opensignal has observed 5G readings in the mmWave frequencies in Australia and Japan. However, the scale of 5G deployments in the mmWave spectrum is still relatively small at a national level in these markets, compared to other spectrum bands. The mmWave range is crucial for 5G roll-outs due to high spectrum bandwidth, which results in higher speeds, lower latency, and increased network capacity, ideal for deployments in dense urban areas or industrial use cases e.g. massive IoT or smart manufacturing.
Sunsetting legacy networks in APAC
As 5G matures, many APAC markets are sunsetting legacy 2G and 3G networks to repurpose spectrum. The shift to more spectrally efficient technologies presents operational challenges like migration costs and service disruption risks. Close collaboration between policymakers and industry stakeholders is critical for a smooth transition.
Looking at the average time Opensignal smartphone users spend across mobile generations, reliance on 2G and 3G connectivity is still high in some Asian Pacific markets — even though in some markets have already switched off their 2G networks (like Brunei Darussalam or Singapore) or 3G networks (like Malaysia).
Our users spend the most time on 2G in Cambodia, Papua New Guinea, and Laos. They also remain connected to 3G networks - we observed this in Timor-Leste, Papua New Guinea, Brunei Darussalam, Myanmar, and Laos. Noteworthily, Taiwan shut down its 3G networks at the end of June 2024, during the data collection period. As markets like Australia and Singapore prepare for 3G sunsets by November 2024, legacy networks remain crucial in rural areas where 3G infrastructure is more extensive than 4G.
While our analysis focuses on smartphone users in the APAC region — the dependence on 2G and 3G connectivity is even greater for users who still rely on older devices due to the lack of modern affordable devices. According to GSMA Intelligence, around 4-6% of mobile device users across the Asia Pacific markets still use basic and feature phones for mobile connectivity. 2G or 3G services still using part of the limited spectrum assets lead to hampering the mobile network experience 4G and 5G. Governments can encourage spectrum refarming by offering favorable terms for spectrum reallocation, offering technology-neutral licenses, and setting clear timelines for 2G/3G shutdowns. Working with neighboring countries on spectrum harmonization strategies is also essential, to ensure a smooth spectrum refarming with minimal interferences across the borders.
Other incentives include developing and promoting 4G/5G use cases for consumers and businesses to unlock new revenue streams. This would make the refarming to modern mobile generations more commercially viable. A wider selection of affordable devices capable of handling 4G and 5G will also help with the transition towards the newer mobile generations.
Legacy spectrum bands in use
Opensignal has investigated three legacy spectrum bands, originally used for 2G and 3G services – 850MHz (3GPP 5), 900MHz (3GPP 8), and 2100MHz (3GPP 1). We have also analyzed the 1800MHz band (3GPP 3) that is exclusively used for 4G services across the observed APAC markets.
Looking at the 850MHz band, it is exclusively used for 3G services in Papua New Guinea, Thailand, Japan, New Zealand, and Myanmar. Meanwhile, several markets like Malaysia, Cambodia, Indonesia, Hong Kong, South Korea, and Vietnam are now fully using this legacy sub 1GHz band to support 4G services. Australia is the only market in the group that uses the 850MHz band for 5G deployments as well, with 28% of readings from our users on this generation.
The 900MHz band is the only one where Opensignal has spotted substantial proportions of 2G readings in some markets. This band still plays a significant role in delivering 2G services in Laos, Cambodia, Timor-Leste, Vietnam, and Myanmar. Meanwhile — Taiwan, Hong Kong, Japan, and South Korea use this band exclusively for 4G networks now. Similar to the 850MHz, Australia is using this band for 5G services to a small degree — the country switched off its 2G network back in 2018 and has refarmed its spectrum to newer mobile generations since then.
The existing 2G and 3G use in the 850MHz and 900MHz bands demonstrates that mobile operators in some APAC markets prioritize bands with more coverage and less bandwidth to deliver legacy technologies for now, before 2G/3G sunsets happen in these markets.
The 2100 MHz band was originally used for 3G deployments around the world. It is still mostly used for these services in Laos, while we also observe substantial proportions of 3G readings on this band in Hong Kong. In several markets, the proportions of readings vary between 20% and 25%, while in other markets, the band is used nearly exclusively for 4G. However, both Hong Kong and Singapore dedicate this band for 5G services as well, with 5G readings in Singapore reaching over 80% of total mobile network readings for our smartphone users.
South Korea shut down its last 2G networks in June 2021. 850MHz and 900MHz have been exclusively refarmed to 4G services. However, while only 2% of SK Telecom and KT’s subscriber base is on 3G plans, the operators are not considering sunsetting their 3G networks — and 3G licenses do not expire until 2026.
3G sunset and future implications
Several APAC markets are planning imminent 3G sunsets, with Australia and Singapore phasing out 3G by November 2024, following Taiwan’s shutdown at the end of June 2024 — while markets like Vietnam plan to decommission 3G networks later, in 2028. However, our analysis demonstrates that several APAC markets still rely on legacy bands for 2G and 3G connectivity. 3G services remain especially crucial in rural and remote areas, where 3G infrastructure is more present than 4G. Furthermore, some mobile users still rely on older devices. Building new networks or upgrading existing ones is a costly challenge, especially if the return on investment may not be commercially viable for mobile operators in the short term.
Upgrading mobile networks to 4G or even 5G, sunsetting 2G and 3G services, and refarming their mobile spectrum to newer mobile generations brings a lot of benefits for mobile users and broader economies in the long run. This includes faster speeds, lower latency, a more efficient and resilient network capable of supporting a much larger amount of devices, and higher spectrum bandwidths. This in turn would benefit national economies, rendering them more competitive, innovative, and efficient, with 5G use cases facilitated like smart agriculture or smart manufacturing. Assigning more mobile spectrum to mobile operators at affordable prices and with technologically neutral licenses is essential for ensuring continuous economic growth in the Asia Pacific region.
For further insights and a deeper analysis of the impact of spectrum on mobile network experience, subscribe to Opensignal’s newsletter. To read more about spectrum, visit GSMA Spectrum, and for more APAC content, visit GSMA Asia Pacific. We will be attending M360 Asia Pacific, so if you are interested in scheduling a briefing with us, please contact us.
Methodology note — band names:
- Low-band spectrum — sub-1GHz frequencies
- Mid-band spectrum — 1-6GHz frequencies
- lower mid-band — spectrum bands between 1.5GHz and 2.6GHz
- upper mid-band — 3.3GHz to 3.8GHz (otherwise known as C-band)
- mmWave — spectrum in the milimetre wave range — 24-100GHz
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